British Landscape Architecture: History and Education
British Landscape Architecture: History and Education
英国景观建筑:历史和教育
By Maggie Roe
马吉 罗
Introduction
介绍
The profession of Landscape Architecture emerged from a long tradition in Britain of designing, managing and cultivating the landscape. The understanding of the landscape is manifest in its manipulation, as seen particularly in the farms of the wealthy and in gardens over many, many years. One could argue therefore that the wisdom and skills of landscape architecture are deeply embedded within the British psyche even though the history of the landscape profession in Britain is not a long one in relation to many other professions. Generally, these traditions relate to landscape that was privately owned. However, in the 1930s new ideas developed which were to do with public external spaces rather than private gardens or estates. The ideas were based on a concern for ‘landscape without boundaries’ (Moggridge, 1998). They had far-reaching effects on the design and layout of all types of landscapes including city open or green spaces, forestry design, housing design, countryside access, business and industrial landscapes, road landscapes, playgrounds etc. The Profession of Landscape Architecture in Britain emerged as a discipline that embraced all these concerns and therefore covered much more than private garden design. This chapter aims to provide a concise review of the history and development of the profession in Britain and the influence it has had on the education of landscape architects. The present educational situation is discussed in light of contemporary thinking in British landscape practice and in light of a growing demand by international students to obtain British qualifications in landscape architecture. 在英国,景观设计师的职业是随着对景观的设计,管理和培育开垦这个长期的传统而出现的.经过很多年, 就像我们所看到的,尤其是在有钱人的农场和花园,对景观的理解在实践中逐渐明确.即使在英国景观设计的职业与许多其他职业相比时间并不算长,有人还是会辩称景观建筑学的智慧和技巧深刻地蕴含了大不列颠的精神.一般说来,这些传统都与私人拥有的景观有关.然而,在19世纪30年代,并非因为私家花园或不动产,而是公共外部空间使新的观念得到了发展.这个观念是基于对《无边界的景观》(Moggridge, 1998)的关注.他们对所有种类的设计和规划有着深远的影响,包括城市开放空间和绿地,林场设计,建筑设计,郊区入口,商业和工业景观,道路景观,运动场等等.在英国,景观建筑师的职业是作为一门学科而出现的,这个学科包含了所有的这些关注点,因此它比私家花园设计覆盖面宽广得多.这一章主要是对英国景观历史和职业的发展提供一个简明的回顾和它在景观建筑学教育上已经产生的影响.对目前景观教育的讨论则是根据当代英国景观实践中的思想和根据国际学生对取得英国景观建筑界的执照的日益增长的需要而进行的.
The Emergence of a Profession
职业的出现
As already indicated, the roots of the profession in Britain lie in gardening and garden design rather than architecture or agriculture, as can be seen in a number of other countries. However agriculture for many landowners in Britain had from the eighteenth century involved a passion for creating ’elysiums’ or ornamental farms on their estates. In 1975 Geoffrey Jellicoe, often regarded as one of the most influential people on the development of British landscape architecture, stated: ‘The world is moving into a phase when landscape design may well be recognized as the most comprehensive of the arts’ (Jellicoe & Jellicoe, 1975:7). He believed that the realisation that designing the collective landscape was a ‘social necessity’ rather than an art ‘confined to private gardens and parks’ had provided the conditions necessary for the emergence of the profession in the early part of the 20th century. Fricker (1969) records that the creation of the professional body of landscape architecture in Britain was conceived in 1928 under the title British Association of Garden Architects, but that by the beginning of 1930 this had changed to the Institute of Landscape Architects as a more accurate description of the work of those involved. This title was influenced by the American use of the term landscape architecture and indicated the view that the profession should be seen to be addressing issues of the public landscape. Practice in the USA was more advanced than in Britain at this time where most of those involved in the establishment of the Institute were only working on the design of private gardens not public spaces (Aldous & Clouston, 1979). The character of the early Landscape Institute was redolent of a now bygone age in the professions with membership characterised largely by the famous English phenomenon – the ‘old boy’ network (that is, it was important who you knew not what you knew). There was no particular qualification for entry - except that you had been invited to apply, you had to declare you had no commercial gardening interests and you generally had to be a well-known ‘someone’. It would though be fair to say that candidates also had to show they had actually achieved something significant in design terms to be accepted. It is clear that there were some very strong characters amongst the 30-40 members at that time and they had a remarkable influence on the development of the profession through publications, teaching and practice in Britain and throughout the world.
正像我们已经提到过的,在不列颠,职业的根源在于园艺和花园设计而不是建筑和农艺,这在许多其他国家也可以看到.然而对于许多英国土地所有者来说,农艺从十八世纪以来包含了一种在他们的地产上创造”极乐世界”或装饰农庄的激情.Geoffrey Jellicoe这位常常被认为是在英国景观建筑学的发展上最具影响力的人物之一,他在1975年说到:”世界正向一个阶段移进,在这个阶段里景观设计将被认为是最综合的艺术”(Jellicoe & Jellicoe, 1975:7).他相信,设计公众的景观是一种社会的必需,而不是一种”被限制在私人花园和公园”的艺术,这一现实提供了二十世纪早期职业化出现的必须条件.Fricker 在1969年记录道:英国景观建筑学专业人员在1982年的创作是在”英国园艺建筑师联合会”的名衔之下进行的,然而从1930年开始就把它变成了”景观建筑师协会”,这也是一种对有关的工作的更精确的描述.这一名衔受了景观建筑学术语的美式用法的的影响,也暗示了该职业应该被视作专注于公共景观的事物.这一时期在美国的实践远比英国先进得多，在英国，绝大多数与建立该组织有关的人都只为私人花园做过设计而并非公共空间(Aldous & Clouston, 1979)。早期景观学会的特性有一种时下过去时代职业界的意味，其成员资格大都具有著名的英国现象—— “校友关系”的特点（那就是说，你知道的那个人并不是你所了解的，这一点十分重要）。进入学会并没有特殊的限制条件——除了你被邀请申请加入，你必须宣称自己对商业园艺设计没有兴趣，同时一般来说你将成为著名的“某人”。尽管公正地说，候选人必须展示他们在设计中实际上所已经取得的重要成就才能被接受。但是十分清楚的是，在那个时代，在30-40个成员之中有一些很强劲的人物，他们通过出版，教学和在英国乃至全世界的设计实践对这个职业的发展起到了非凡的影响。
One of these early members was Sylvia Crowe whose remarkable perceptiveness and lifetime of thought and observation in relation to landscape issues was celebrated and recognised by the British establishment in 1973 when she was made a Dame of the British Empire. Her articles, letters and books had, and still have, considerable influence both at home in the UK and abroad. In the 2004 Landscape Institute Awards Dame Sylvia Crowe was identified as the landscape architect who has made the greatest contribution to, or had the most significant influence on, the UK landscape in the past 75 years (Landscape, 2004). Another member, Geoffrey Jellicoe has been described as the ‘moving spirit which brought landscape design out of the private domain in the early part of the 20th Century, and into the public domain in the latter part’ (Roger Stringer quoted in Landscape Institute, 1996). Mike Downing has said that although Geoffrey Jellicoe has been described as ‘the life and soul of the British Landscape Institute, Sylvia Crowe was its conscience’ (Downing, Pers. Comm., 2005). As a young man Jellicoe worked with Parker and Unwin who had already been involved in the design of Letchworth Garden City (1903) and Welwyn Garden City (1923) (Fricker, 1969). The thinking, which Parker espoused, that opportunities should be provided for ordinary people to connect more closely with landscape, and thereby providing greater educational opportunities and social justice can be seen to have influenced a number of landscape designers of the period. Spring 1934 saw the publication of an influential magazine Landscape and Garden, started by Richard Susell and subsequently edited with quarterly notes by Brenda Colvin (eventually to become the journal Landscape Design, now Landscape). During the 1930s there was also an influx of visitors from Germany (e.g. Gropius, Breur, Moholoy-Nagy) who influenced the general state of art and landscape architecture in Britain towards more modernist thinking as was reflected by Tunnard in this book Gardens in the Modern Landscape in 1938.
Sylvia Crowe是早期成员之一，她非凡的感知力和她关于景观问题终其一生的思想和观察都非常著名，并在1973年被英国官方所认可，时值她被英皇授予女爵士。她的文章，信件和书籍不论在英国和其他国家已经有了并且仍然有着相当大的影响力。在2004年度景观学会奖中，Sylvia Crowe女爵士被看作是对英国景观界过去的75年历史中作出了最伟大贡献或起到了最重要影响的景观建筑师。另外一个成员Geoffrey Jellicoe，他被看作是“在20世纪前期把景观设计带出私人领域同时在20世纪后期把它带入公共领域的倡导人” (Roger Stringer在1996年《景观学会》中的引用) Mike Downing 说尽管Geoffrey Jellicoe 被看作是“英国景观学会的生命和灵魂，而Sylvia Crowe是它的道德心” (Downing, Pers. Comm., 2005)。作为一个年轻人，Jellicoe 与Parker 和 Unwin一起工作,而这两个人早已在Letchworth花园城市(1903)和 Welwyn 花园城市(1923)的设计工作中了(Fricker, 1969)。派克支持一种思想,那就是应该提供机会给普通人与景观更接近地联系，因此也要提供更多的教育机会和社会观点，我们可以看到这种思想已经影响了非常多的这一时期的景观设计师。这一思想见诸于具有影响力的刊物《Landscape and Garden》这本杂志1934年的春季版，从Richard Susell最初开始，随后由Brenda Colvin继续做每季的评论（这本杂志逐渐成为《景观设计》期刊，也就是现在的《景观》）。在十九世纪三十年代有一些德国的学者进入英国（如Gropius, Breur, Moholoy-Nagy），就像Tunnard在《Gardens in the Modern Landscape》一书中所反映的那样，这些人全面地影响了英国的艺术和景观建筑学，使之向着更现代的思想发展。
A major influence on the development of the profession, on opportunities for involvement in public landscape and on the public view of landscapes, was the 1939-45 war. During the actual war years there was very little activity in the profession (Aldous & Clouston, 1979) but post-war practice indicates the extent of the war’s influence on thinking and practice opportunities. During the war many of those involved in the profession were sent abroad to serve in the armed forces along with much of the rest of the British population. Not only did this mean that they saw and experienced other landscapes and cultures, but they were literally exposed to new ways of looking at the world - from the air, from the sea and on land. Fricker (1969) asks: ‘Is it too much to suggest that for so many [ordinary people].. to see their tiny sea-locked land from a sky vantage point was what gave cogency to national planning?’ (p.11). Indeed it is perhaps hard for us to imagine the revelation such an experience might have induced as we are so used to aerial photographs and other similar representations of landscape. There was a feeling that building a ‘better Britain’ in terms of bricks and landscape, meant that a ‘better environment’ was also being created (Jellicoe quoted in Aldous & Clouston, 1979).
在战争期间很多与该职业有关的人和很多其他英国人一样被送往国外在军队服役. 这不仅意味着他们看到和感受到别样的景观和文化,同时他们被完全地暴露在一种看世界的新的方式中——从空中，从海上，从陆地。Fricker 在1969年曾发出这样的疑问，“对于众多普通人来说，从空中看到他们的小小的被海洋环绕着的陆地成为了他们进行国家规划的力量，这种假设是否是被夸大了呢？” 确实，对我们来说，难以想象这种经验所可能促成的启示，因为我们已经对鸟瞰的照片和其他类似的景观表现方式非常的熟悉了。有一种看法就是建设一个在建筑和景观方面“更美好的英国”就意味着“更好的环境”应该同时被创造出来。(Jellicoe quoted in Aldous & Clouston, 1979) 在景观职业的发展上,在设计公共景观的时机上和对景观的公众见解上来说,1935年到45年的战争是对这些方面的一个主要的影响. 在真正的战争期间,景观职业基本上没有设计的活动(Aldous & Clouston, 1979),但是战后的实践即显示出在思想和实践机会上战争影响的深度和广度.
The effect of the war was then to produce a generation of landscape architects who looked more broadly at the landscape in terms of scale and other important issues. Town and country planning had an important influence; the need post-war for fast solutions to social and economic problems and to provide ‘homes fit for heroes’ meant that landscapes were changing at a considerable rate. Large-scale planting of coniferous forest in Britain was being carried out and agricultural technology had changed dramatically. Many new Acts of Parliament were passed which had considerable affect on the landscape e.g. the 1946 New Towns Act, the 1947 Town and Country Planning Act, and the 1949 National Parks and Access to the Countryside Bill. The landscape architects of the time had considerable scope to experiment and develop their theories and ideals particularly in relation to the landscapes of the New Towns. A number of them also wrote books, which are still commonly used by students today. Others passed on their thoughts through teaching a new generation of landscape architects at the University courses being established. Many young landscape architects were influenced by the Scandinavian approach to landscape through Professor Brian Hackett at Newcastle University who had visited Scandinavia in the late 1940s. The Newcastle course was an important influence on the development of the profession, producing the majority of students at the time and for the next ten years.
战争的结果接下来就是使之产生了新一代的景观建筑师，这些人对景观在尺度和其他重要问题上都看得更远。城镇和郊区的规划有了一个重要的影响；战后，迅速解决社会和经济问题和提供“为英雄安家”服务的需要意味着景观正以一种可观的速度发生着变化。 在英国，实行了大范围针叶树林的种植，农业技术也飞速改变。许多新的国会立法被通过，这在景观上起到了巨大的作用，例如1946年的《新城镇法案》，1947年的《城镇和郊区规划法案》和1949年的《国家公园和乡间议案》。那个时代的景观建筑师有相当大的活动范围去实践和发展他们的理论和理想，尤其是与新城有关的景观。他们中的很多人也著书，这些书一般来说至今仍然被学生所使用。另外一些人通过在大学逐渐建立一些课程并教授新一代的景观建筑师来传递他们的思想。很多年轻的景观建筑师通过在Newcastle大学的Brian Hackett教授，受到了斯堪的纳维亚人对待景观的手法的影响，该教授曾经在19世纪40年代后期游历过斯堪的纳维亚。Newcastle大学的课程对于景观职业的发展，在那个时代和以后的十年内产生这个学生的专业都具有重要的意义。
In 1946 entry to the Institute was changed to entry by examination and this had a ‘slow but distinguishable shift in the make up of the membership’ (Fricker, 1969:12) as well as the outlook of the profession as a whole. However in 1949 the new President of the Institute Thomas Sharpe restated what he saw as the aims of profession: ‘I think I can say truly that we regard the work which we seek to advance, and the need of that work’s being done well, as far more important than our personal share in it’ (Fricker, 1969:12).
1946年，进入学会的资格变成需要由考试通过，这是一个“缓慢的但在成员的构成上来说是显而易见的变化” (Fricker, 1969:12)，正如这个职业在总体上的前景一样。而在1949年，学会的新主席Thomas Sharpe重申了他所理解的这个职业的目标：“我想我可以确实地说，我们关注着这个我们一直致力于提高的工作，作好这份工作的需要远远比我们个人从中的参与更重要” (Fricker, 1969:12)。
During the 1950s and 1960s there were the continuing influences that resource use and desire to build up natural resources had on the landscape. This was really a result of a post-war wish to ensure that Britain could be self-sufficient in terms of resources as far as possible. It was also to encourage economic growth and stability. Landscape architects were involved in large-scale infrastructure and landscape planning projects such as land reclamation, power station schemes and road building as well as housing estates and forestry design. The Landscape Reclamation Project in the north-east of England, spearheaded by Newcastle University, restored land from coal mining and waste areas. It was ground breaking in its practical and interdisciplinary nature involving landscape architects, botanists, soils specialists and others. The report (Landscape Reclamation Vols 1 & 2, 1971) and the book Landscape Reclamation Practice (1977) also emerged from this innovative partnership – a novel approach in those days (Downing, Pers. Comm., 2005). Influence from modern art and from international designers such as Roberto Burle Marx can also be clearly seen at this time. The ‘space age’ influenced not only detailed designs (Fricker, 1969), but also a way of seeing the ecology of the planet and conceiving large areas of land and sea as connected and interdependent systems. Scientific thinking had considerable influence in a number of other ways on landscape architectural thinking as can be seen in the Scottish landscape architect Ian McHarg’s influential book Design with Nature (1969). This scientific influence can also be seen clearly in the work of the landscape architects of the 1970s and 1980s who experimented with ‘ecological’ landscapes. At Warrington New Town in the north-west of England, ‘nature-like’ landscapes were being created on derelict sites and the involvement of ecologists and scientists became more apparent (See Tregay & Gustavson, 1983; Tregay 1985). Landscape architects became important in the development of community-based and participatory methods as can be seen in the 1970s at the redevelopment of the housing at Byker, Newcastle upon Tyne, and later in the Groundwork Trusts which were first established in the 1980s. Although numbers of professionals were still small, opportunities were considerable. By 1969 membership of the Institute of Landscape Architects was approximately 900 and by 1978, 1,500. However the vast majority of these were students. Towards the end of the 1970s – all spheres of life as well as the physical environment were being questioned – people’s values changed rapidly – the optimism of the sixties gave way to the pessimism of the late seventies. Landscape practice was affected directly and indirectly by cuts in public spending, post-industrial change, unemployment, the beginnings of globalisation (new uncertainties in the political arena e.g. the end of the Cold War), uncontrolled polluting industrial practices, agricultural change and intensification.
在19世纪50到60年代之间，对于景观设计有一种持续的影响力，那就是资源利用和希望增加自然资源的愿望。这确实是战争后的一种结果，人们希望能保证英国在资源方面尽可能自给自足。这也鼓励了经济的增长和经济稳定。景观建筑师不仅进行房屋和林地设计，同时也参与到大规模基础设施和景观规划项目上，例如开垦荒地，发电站规划和修筑道路。由Newcastle 大学最先开始推进的英格兰东北部的景观改造项目从煤矿和废墟中重建了这一地区。这一工程在实践上和各学科之间的关系上彻底打破了原来的认识，包括景观建筑师，植物学家，土壤专家等等。关于这项工程的报告（景观改造卷一和卷二，1971）和书籍《景观改造工程》（1977）也由这一创新的合作关系——“那个时代的一种新方式”(Downing, Pers. Comm., 2005)而出现。现代艺术和国际上的设计者诸如Roberto Burle Marx 所带来的影响也能在这一时期被清晰地看到。“太空时代”不仅影响到细部的设计(Fricker, 1969)，而且是一种看这个星球的生态系统的方式，一种把陆地和海洋这个巨大区域作为联系的和互相依赖的系统来构思的方式。科学的思考对景观建筑学上产生大量的其他的思考方式有着相当的影响力，这从苏格兰景观建筑师Ian McHarg的具影响力的书《Design with Nature设计依据自然》（1969）中即可见一斑。这种科学的影响力可以在十九世纪七十年代到八十年代的景观建筑师的作品中被清晰地辨认，这些人曾实验了“生态的”景观。在英格兰西北部的Warrington 新城，“仿自然”的景观在废弃的场所上被创造出来，同时生态学家和科学家在从中的参与开始越来越凸显。景观建筑师在基于社区和公众参与的工作方式的发展上变的越来越重要，就像在十九世纪七十年代在紧邻泰恩河的Newcastle，Byker地区和之后在Groundwork Trusts的住宅群再开发中看到的一样，后者始建与十九世纪八十年代。虽然职业景观建筑师的数量还很少，但是机会却是相当地可观。到1969年，景观建筑师学会的成员人数大概有900人，而到1978年发展到1500人。然而这中间的大多数还是学生。到十九世纪七十年代末，所有领域的生活包括自然环境都被质疑了——人们的价值观迅速地变化——六十年代的乐观主义让位给了七十年代后期的悲观主义。景观的实践直接的或间接的受到了很多因素的影响，如政府开支的削减，后工业时代的来临，失业，全球化的开始（在政治舞台上新的不确定因素的浮现，比如冷战的结束），未受控制的污染的工业生产，农业的变化和强化。
Amongst the most influential practitioners and writers of the period post-war to the 1980s were Elizabeth Beazley (Design and Detail of the Space Between Buildings, 1960; Designed for Recreation, 1969), Brenda Colvin (Land and Landscape, 1970; Trees for Town & Country, 1972), Sylvia Crowe (Tomorrow’s Landscape, 1956; The Landscape of Power, 1958; The Landscape of Roads, 1960; Forestry in the Landscape, 1966), Nan Fairbrother (New Lives, New Landscapes, 1970), Geoffrey Jellicoe (Studies in Landscape Design, 1960-70; The Landscape of Man, 1975), Peter Shepheard (Modern Gardens, 1953), Clifford Tandy (Handbook of Urban Landscape, 1970; Landscape of Industry, 1975) and Arnold Weddle (Landscape Techniques, 1979). In the 1970s the Landscape Institute was expanded to its present three professional ‘divisions’: landscape architecture, landscape science and landscape management, now all generally encompassed under the description of landscape professionals. Landscape Scientists are seen to specialise in the physical and biological aspects of landscape design and management and are primarily concerned with passive description, understanding and explanation of the processes which underlie landscape change (Thompson, 1999); Landscape Managers are concerned with the long term care and development of new and existing landscapes, also with policy and planning for further landscape management and use; Landscape Architects are regarded primarily as designers and with landscape managers are actively involved in manipulating the landscape. In recent years there has also been discussion as to whether a distinct landscape planning division should be created, but there is a general feeling that the work of landscape planning and landscape assessment – which could also be considered as requiring separate specialist skills – should remain under the umbrella term of landscape architecture.
从战后到十九世纪八十年代，景观职业中最具影响力的从业者和著书者有Elizabeth Beazley（《建筑间空间的设计和细节》1960；《情趣设计》，1969），Brenda Colvin（《土地和景观》1970；《城镇和郊区的树木》1972），Sylvia Crowe（《未来的景观》，1956；《景观的力量》，1958；《道路的景观》，1960；《景观中的林地》，1966），Nan Fairbrother（《新生活新景观》，1970），Geoffrey Jellicoe（《景观设计中的研究》，1960－70；《人类的景观》，1975），Peter Shepheard(《现代园林》,1953)；Clifford Tandy（《城市景观手册》，1970；《工业景观》，1975）；Arnold Weddle（《景观的技术》，1979）。在十九世纪七十年代，景观学会扩大到现在的三个专业的部分：景观建筑学，景观科学和景观管理， 现在这三部分通常都包含在景观职业的种类之下。景观科学家分支被认为是在景观设计和管理的自然和生物方面作专门研究，主要参与对过程的被动的记述，理解和解释，这种过程是景观转变的基础(Thompson, 1999)；景观管理者分支涉及新的和现存景观的长期维护和发展，也参与进一步景观管理和利用的政策和计划的制定；景观建筑师分支主要是作为设计师的组织，同时也协同景观管理者处理景观问题。近年来，也有讨论是否需要创建一个独立的景观规划的分支，但是有一种普遍的认识就是景观规划和景观评价——这也被认为需要单独的专业技能——应该保持在景观建筑学的伞形分支下。
During the 1980s and 1990s links were made between social deprivation and ecological degradation. The rise of the green movement and environmental concern fuelled the move towards environmental renewal as a way of regenerating urban areas in which many landscape architects worked. However a strong belief in the market economy resulted in the proliferation of ‘flagship projects’ such as was to be found at the Teesside Development Corporation (TDC) area in the north-east of England. This was demand-led development planning and deregulation. These Urban Development Corporations were their own planning authorities which bypassed the existing democratic structures (Planning Authorities). Regeneration projects were based on the idea of the ‘trickle-down effect’ i.e. if you provided big solutions and executive development this would raise the potential of the area and attract in big new businesses which would in turn provide jobs and raise the earning capacity and desirability of the neighbourhoods. The landscape designs produced by this were in some cases monumental, but were also clinical and ignored cultural and social associations and were often carved out at the expense of long-term ecological considerations.
十九世纪八十年代到九十年代期间，社会贫困和生态退化诸多联系。绿色运动的兴起和对环境关注的高涨为 环境的更新提供了动力，以此作为重建城市地区的一种方式，而很多景观建筑师即在这城市中间工作。然而市场经济中存在的强烈的信仰导致了“旗舰计划”的增殖，如同在英格兰东北部的Teesside 发展团体 (TDC)地区所发现的那样。这是需求引导的发展计划和反常现象。这些城市发展团体有他们特有的规划权威组织，这些组织绕开了现存的民主机构（规划权力机构）。重建计划建立在“涓滴效果”理念的基础之上，也就是说如果你提供了有效地解决方案和可执行的发展计划，就提高了这一地区的潜能，吸引重要的新的商业，这会反过来能提供工作机会，提高收入和邻里关系的满意度。这时产生的景观设计，某一些可以说是不朽的，但也是没有感情的，忽略了文化的和社会的联系，并且经常以长期的生态为代价开辟出道路。
In Britain in the late 1990s there emerged a much more questioning approach to the way landscape was planned. Membership of the European Union (EU) brought with it many new laws and regulations concerning landscape. Environmental Assessment (EA) tools and techniques developed and Landscape Character Assessment (LCA), which emerged from environmental assessment, became an essential part of landscape architectural practice.。Along with this there is now considerable interest in character assessment of local and regional landscapes to retain and enhance existing identity and provide new identities in degraded landscapes. In an interview in 1991 Geoffrey Jellicoe said: ‘As the world becomes more and more mechanistic we will need to be anchored in nature for the sake of the sanity of the species. I don’t think any of us yet realise the vital place that landscapers will play over the next 200 years’ (Horticulture Week, 1991:24). Certainly over the last ten years or so there has been a revolution in the way landscape architects in the UK have had to consider issues of sustainability - partly as a result of increasing regulation and partly as a result of increased awareness of sustainability issues. Sustainability as a concept has also proved useful in landscape architecture in conceptualising what many landscape architects have been thinking and working towards for many years (see Benson & Roe, 2000). The concept has been most valuable as a comparative term i.e. more sustainable or less unsustainable and because it indicates a getting away from ‘business as usual’ (Thayer, 1994:317). Three key, and now familiar, components have emerged from the sustainability debate: economic sustainability, social sustainability and environmental sustainability – with a strong emphasis on equity and futurity. In particular, demands for more sustainable development has influenced landscape practice including the use of environmental impact assessment (EIA) methods, the emergence of Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems (SUDS) and consideration of Life Cycle Assessment of construction materials used in landscape schemes.
在十九世纪九十年代后期的英国，产生了一种更具争议的景观规划的方法。欧洲联盟(EU)的会员资格的到来也带来了很多新的法规和与景观有关的规定。环境评估协会(EA)的手段和技术有了发展，景观特征评估协会(LCA)，这个协会由环境评估协会而来，已经成为了景观建筑学实践的核心部分随着这些协会的发展，现在有相当大的兴趣在当地的和地区的景观特征评估中保持和加强现有的评判标准，同时在退化了的景观中提供新的辨认标准。在1991年的一次采访中，Geoffrey Jellicoe 说道：“当世界变得越来越机械化的时候，出于保全物种的考虑，我们需要依靠自然来工作。我并不认为我们中的任何人已经意识到现在生机勃勃的地方在今后的200年里景观师将无所作为。的确，在过去大约十年的时间里英国的景观建筑师在考虑可持续发展问题的方式上有了一个革命——部分是因为逐渐发展的法规所促成的结果，部分是因为可持续发展问题已经被人认识 。把很多景观建筑师多年来所作的思考和努力的方向形成一个概念，而可持续发展作为这个概念在景观建筑学界被证明是有用的。这个概念作为一个比较的术语具有最大的价值，即“更”可持续或“较少”不可持续，同时也因为它暗示了渐渐远离“照常营业”的方式(Thayer, 1994:317)。三个关键的目前已被人所熟悉的组成部分已经从可持续发展的论战中形成：经济的可持续发展，社会的可持续发展和环境的可持续发展——强调了公平和未来。特别是更多的可持续发展的需求影响到景观的实践包括环境影响评估(EIA)方法的使用，可持续城市排水系统(SUDS)的出现和对在景观设计中运用的建筑材料的使用周期的评估的考虑。
It has been recognised that social systems in Britain have had a strong input in the determination of the pattern of the British landscape. In growing recognition of this, community consultation has now become a feature of many landscape schemes, as has greater integrated, cross-disciplinary and co-operative thinking with action described as a ‘comprehensive process of change, top-down and bottom-up, global and local, individual and collective’ (Irvine, 1999, p.331). Thompson (1999) supports the view that involvement of local communities ‘would seem to combine aesthetic, social and (potentially) ecological values in a worthwhile manner’ (p.34) and certainly the involvement of the actual users of the landscape in the design and management process is now seen as important and normal in most landscape projects. There is now an understanding that you cannot create greater sustainability by simply creating ’delightful places’ (interior or exterior) – you need to ask far more penetrating questions about ’who’ the space is being created for; ’why’ the space is being created and ’how’ the space is being created (the process), as well as ’what’ is being created (Roe, 2000) . Another particularly pertinent point is: will the answers to these questions actually create more sustainable landscapes? The profession in the UK is now developing a new set of professional tools in response to these changing requirements for landscape evaluation and in response to managing more participatory approaches to design.
显而易见，英国的社会体系对于英国景观格调的决定有着强烈的参与性。在这一点逐渐得到重视的过程中，社区咨询而今成为许多景观方案的特色，使之具有更整合的﹑交叉学科的﹑协作的思想和与之匹配的被描述为一种“变化的综合处理，自上而下的和自下而上的，全球的和地方的，个人的和集体的”行为(Irvine, 1999, p.331)。Thompson (1999)支持这样的观点那就是当地社区的参与“会有可能在一个值得做的方式里结合美学的，社会的和（潜在的）生态的价值” (p.34)，当然，景观真正的使用者在设计和管理过程中的参与现在在大多数景观的工程中看起来显得重要而普通。如今有一种共识那就是你不可能通过简单地创造“愉悦的场所”（包括室内的和室外的）就可以造就更完善的可持续——你需要提出关于诸如“什么”被创造出来了到为“谁”而缔造这个空间；这个空间“为何”被创造和“如何”（过程）被创造这类更敏锐的问题(Roe, 2000)。另一个独特的相关观点是：这些问题的答案真的能创造更可持续的景观吗？在英国的景观职业现在发展了一套新的职业工具来回应这些景观评估的不断变化的要求和对于管理更多可供分享的设计的方法的回应。
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Education and Research
教育和研究
The development of professional education in Britain as we know it today really did not exist in any of the traditional professions until the 20th Century (Downing, 1992). As early as 1821 J. C. Loudon (1783-1843), the influential Scottish author and garden designer, brought attention to the poor training and conditions of young gardeners. He urged that more resources be provided and proposed a liberal and professional education be established to improve gardening in Britain and other European countries (Simo, 1988). He recommended the establishment of garden libraries and understood the profession as an academic as well as a practical art and science, recommending education to include regard for the individual’s moral, religious, and physical development. In Britain there is a tradition of the ‘gifted amateur’ particularly in relation to gardens and garden design. Gertrude Jekyll (1843-1932) can be regarded in this light: even though she had been trained as an artist, she has never really been regarded as a ‘professional’ in the modern sense of the word and in spite of her authorship of numerous influential books and articles on gardening and her considerable work with Edwin Lutyens the architect (Downing, 1992).
我们今天所知道的英国职业教育的发展都并不存在于任何传统的职业当中，这种情况一直持续到20世纪(Downing, 1992)。早在1821年，J. C. Loudon (1783-1843) ，这位具影响力的苏格兰作家和园艺家就给予年轻的园艺工作者的匮乏的职业培训和条件以关注。他力促提供更多的资源和提议建立一种自由的和职业的教育以提高英国和其他欧洲国家的园艺水平(Simo, 1988)。他推荐建立园艺图书馆，把这个职业不仅理解为实用艺术和科学也理解为一种学术，建议教育应该包括关注个人的道德，信仰和身体的发展在内。在英国，尤其是关于园艺和园艺设计，有“天才的业余艺术家”的传统。Gertrude Jekyll (1843-1932)在这方面可以视作一例：尽管她曾经被作为一名画家来培养，她从来没有被真正认为是一个用现代含义来理解的“专业人员”，不管她著作了大量影响广泛的关于园艺的书籍和文章，也不管她和建筑师Edwin Lutyens做了大量的相关的工作。
Early development of the education of landscape architects had little to do with the quality assurance systems and assessment of assessments with which UK higher education is bombarded today. Mike Downing, former Landscape Programmes Director (now retired) at Newcastle University writes that ‘the expansion of landscape education as we know it in the UK dates back to the early sixties, when first there were developed new graduate programmes at the old universities, and then the undergraduate streams at Polytechnics. From a trickle, there developed a torrent of graduates’. He traces the first formal teaching of Landscape Architecture to the University of Liverpool where Thomas Mawson (1861-1933), first President of the Landscape Institute, ran a programme of lectures to Architecture Students in 1909. The first Diploma course at undergraduate level was started in 1932, and in 1933 the recently established Institute of Landscape Architects published an examination syllabus. The external examination system was set up in1946 (Lancaster, 1987). In 1948 two new lectureships in landscape were created, one at Kings College, Newcastle (then part of Durham University) and the other at King’s College, University of London. The Newcastle course was strongly based on ecological principles of design under the influence of Professor Brian Hackett.
景观建筑师教育的早期发展与质量保证体系和对各种评论的评估几乎没有关系 ，这也是英国的高等教育如今强烈抨击的。在Newcastle大学的前任“景观规划”的主管Mike Downing（现在已经退休）写道“我们所知道的在英国的景观教育的扩展可以追溯到六十年代早期，那时首先在一些老的大学里面开设新的研究生课程，然后在Polytechnics工艺学校逐渐开设本科生课程。从小小的一滴水渐渐发展到了研究生的急流”。他追忆他在利物浦大学第一次景观建筑学的正式教学，在那里，第一任景观学会主席Thomas Mawson (1861-1933)在1909年给建筑系的学生开设了一系列的讲座。第一个本科生水平的有文凭的课程开始于1932年，在1933年最先建立的景观建筑师学会出版了一套考试大纲。而由校外机构主持的考试体制在1946年建立(Lancaster, 1987)。1984年景观专业有两个新的讲座设立，一个在Newcastle 大学的Kings学院（后来部分在Durham大学），另一个在伦敦大学的King’s学院。Newcastle的课程在Brian Hackett教授的影响之下坚定地基于设计的生态的原则。
The 1960s saw the establishment of further lectureships and an expansion of courses at various Universities (Edinburgh, Manchester and Sheffield) and at art colleges (Gloucester, Birmingham, Leeds, Manchester, London and Dundee). The Institute established an educational visiting panel in 1973 to assess the programmes of the various schools. Most of the art college courses were then absorbed into Polytechnics (Lancaster, 1987) and in 1992 Polytechnics achieved University status. The gap between the former Polytechnics and the old Universities in terms of academic approaches began to close, however the more recent emphasis on research as a measure of academic value has in some cases put considerable pressure on the new Universities whose original establishment were based on more technical objectives.
十九世纪六十年代，在不同的大学(Edinburgh, Manchester and Sheffield)和艺术学院(Gloucester, Birmingham, Leeds, Manchester, London and Dundee)设立了更多的讲座，课程也有了扩展。景观学会在1973年建立了一个教育考察小组以评估不同学校的课程计划。大多数艺术学院的课程被Polytechnics(Lancaster, 1987)工艺学校所吸纳，在1992年Polytechnics工艺学校获得了“大学”的地位。先前的Polytechnics工艺学校和老牌大学之间在理论方法上的差距逐渐消失，然而近来把更多的重点放在研究上作为一种学术价值的衡量，这在某些情况下给那些原来建立在更技术化目标基础上的新兴的大学很大压力。
In 1974 it was decided that landscape scientists and managers should be able to join the Institute and it was renamed in 1975 as the ‘Landscape Institute’. Landscape programmes pertaining to these specialisations also came gradually under the remit of the Institute’s inspection panel. The professional qualification was based for many years on a 4-part system. This system was later altered to one whereby students who had graduated from an accredited programme took professional practice exams (PPE) after two years in practice. Recently the system has been altered again to a more ‘candidate centred learning’ approach which aims to allow those wishing to take the PPE to progress at their own pace under the guidance of a mentor (Landscape Institute, 2004). The candidates keep professional practice record sheets of their experience in practice and are classed as Associate Members. When they are deemed ready they will undertake an oral examination and may proceed to full Membership of the Landscape Institute (MLI). The new system aims to be part of a wider Personal Development Programme that starts when candidates enter professional practice and carries on through Continuing Professional Development (CPD) and lifelong learning (Landscape Institute, 2004). Interestingly this philosophy is reminiscent of Loudon’s original recommendations in the 1800s for the education of young gardeners in England.
1974年景观科学家和管理者被确定应该可以加入学会，紧接着1975年学会被重新命名为“景观学会”。有关于这些专业的课程设置也逐渐交于学会的考察小组视察。该职业的资格审定多年来建立在一个由四部分组成的体系的基础之上。这一体系后来变为这样一个标准，即从被认可的系列课程毕业的学生在两年的从业实践之后取得职业实践考试（PPE）的通过。最近这一体系又变为一种希望有更多的“关注学问的投考者”的方式，这一改变为的是容许那些希望在导师的指导之下通过PPE考试取得他们自身的进步的人加入(Landscape Institute, 2004)。投考者要保存证明他们实践经验的职业工作记录的表格，然后被划分成为“预备会员”。当他们认为已经准备好的时侯，他们需要接受一个口头的测验从而可以成为景观学会(MLI)的正式会员。新的体系致力于成为一个更广阔的“个人发展计划”的一部分，这个计划开始于投考者进入职业生涯并通过“继续职业发展”(CPD)和毕生的学习得以继续(Landscape Institute, 2004)。有趣的是，这个理念可以说是Loudon在十八世纪为英国青年园艺者的教育问题所提的最初建议的旧事重提。
In 1992 Downing identified that the development of the pattern of Landscape Architecture higher education programmes in the UK had been in response to professional needs at the expense of research and the acquisition of higher (research) degrees. This picture is now changing as a result of pressures on universities and on Landscape Architecture academics to prove themselves by producing an increasing number of published research articles and books. In addition, the majority of PhD and research Masters students in the UK generally in the area of Landscape are overseas students. The quality of teaching in Landscape Architecture in the UK remains very high as evidenced by the demand from around the world for a British education. However, the numbers of home students attracted to all programmes have been affected by lack of funding for study and, up until recently, by poor starting salaries within the profession. There is an increasing emphasis on cross-disciplinary working and education. As landscape programmes become embedded within Schools which include other professions, such as Architecture and Planning, better opportunities are afforded for working with these professions at student level as well as for taking options in subject areas such as Urban Design, Architectural History, Planning Theory etc. The most recent and most important influence on student intake and numbers has been the encouragement by China and other countries for their students to study in the UK.
1992年，Downing看到：在英国，景观建筑学高等教育计划模式的发展正以研究为代价和以更高级（研究的）学位的获得来响应职业的需求。 由于各个大学和景观建筑学院所受到的压力，这一景象现在正在改变，他们出版不断增长的研究文章和书籍以证明自己。另外，在英国，景观领域的大部分博士生和硕士研究生都是海外留学生。英国的景观建筑学领域的教学质量一直保持着非常高的水平，从世界各地而来接受不列颠教育的需求看就可以得到证实。然而，对所有课程感兴趣的本地学生的数量由于研究基金的缺乏而受到影响，这一情况一直持续到最近，另外还受到这一职业一开始的偏低的薪水的影响。如今越来越强调跨学科的工作和教育。因为景观的课程编排变成有很多学院的介入，包括其他职业的例如建筑学和规划专业，所以可以提供更好的机会以学生的水平与这些专业的人一起工作，也可以在很多专题领域提供选择，诸如城市设计，建筑历史，规划理论等等。在学生的吸纳量和数量上，最近期和最重要的影响力是来自中国和其他的国家在英国学习的学生的鼓励。
With regard to landscape practice and education there is now a strong and growing influence on Britain as a result of the European Union. The Council of Europe’s Landscape Convention is a landmark in the recognition that all landscapes should be considered as valuable, and that landscape is ‘a key element of individual and social well-being and quality of life’ (CoE, 2003:preamble). The Convention emphasises that landscape cannot be protected by drawing lines around what are considered ‘outstanding’ areas at the expense of others. All landscapes have the potential to hold some kind of meaning, provide identity and benefit to the community, and landscape ‘must be recognised and protected independently from its value’ (Priore, 2001:32). By doing this, the Convention also raises the profile of landscape professionals. In addition, the European Union has provided considerable finance for the ‘Le Notre’ Thematic Network project which has brought together the majority of the Universities and organizations teaching landscape subjects throughout Europe to collaborate to achieve a greater mutual understanding concerning educational issues (see www.le-notre.org/).
关于景观的实践和教育，作为加入欧洲联盟的结果，现在有一种强大的且日益强大的的力量影响到英国。欧洲景观大会委员会在对景观的认识过程中是一个里程碑，他们认为所有的景观都应该被认为是有价值的，景观是“个人和社会的福利和基本生活条件的一个关键元素” (CoE, 2003:preamble)。景观大会强调景观不是在我们认为“出色的”地方画一个圈而牺牲其他别的景观就可以得到保护了。所有的景观都有潜力拥有某种含义，提供特征鉴别和使社区受益，同时景观“必须被承认和保护，而不仅仅因为他的价值” (Priore, 2001:32)。在宣传这一理念的同时，景观大会也提升了景观从业人员的形象。另外，欧洲联盟为“勒 诺特”主题网站计划提供了大量的经费，这个计划已经把欧洲的大多数教授景观学科的大学和组织联合在一起，以期获得对于教育问题的更好的相互理解(见 www.le-notre.org/)。
There are seven Universities in the UK now offering professionally accredited landscape architecture programmes. Newcastle University’s professionally accredited postgraduate Master of Landscape Architecture (MLA) programme was the oldest active course in Landscape Architecture in Britain until it’s suspension in 2004. This suspension was a result of the continuing political and economic onslaught waged against higher education in the UK and an astounding casualty in the light of growing demand for professionals in Britain and professional education in landscape from abroad. However, Newcastle still runs thriving research student (PhD, MPhil and MA) programmes in landscape based on its high research status.
在英国，现在有7所大学专业地提供认可的景观建筑学课程。Newcastle大学的专业认可的景观建筑学(MLA)学科的硕士研究生课程是英国景观建筑学界开设时间最久的热门课程，直到2004年被中止。这次课程的中止是因为持续的政治和经济的冲击对高等教育造成了工资的拖欠，而结果是对该职业在英国的日益增长的需要和国外对景观职业教育的需要这两方面产生了惊人的伤害。然而，Newcastle因其在景观界基于一个很高的研究地位，所以在别的研究性学生(PhD, MPhil and MA)课程方面仍然十分兴旺。
In landscape architectural education in Britain, the emphasis has been on studio work as the core of the landscape programme. Generally the philosophy is that students learn a variety of subject areas and then demonstrate how they have synthesised this knowledge in the production of their design projects. Teaching is generally carried out on a modular basis and many programmes allow for some specialisation and choice in the type of project and optional modules that may be taken. The problem with landscape architectural education has always been how many subjects to cover and to what depth. Over the last 10 years there has been a radical change in presentation and production of design projects as a result of computer-based technologies. However, this has also meant that students have had to acquire additional skills to the traditional hand drawn skills putting an extra burden on their time. Studio projects vary from abstract to practical and most Schools now use real projects as the basis for many of their studios. There is still much debate in British Schools about how students acquire design skills. However the greatest landscape architects are seen not just as synthesisers, but interpreters of know facts (Clark, 1969:6). The ‘old’ Universities generally have an emphasis on knowledge-based teaching whilst the ‘new’ Universities, formerly Polytechnics, are still biased towards skills-based learning. This caters for a wide range of potential professionals including those who might be magnificent designers, but might not be so good at written arguments and analysis, and vice-versa. At Newcastle University the emphasis has been on the development of independent observation, learning skills and project resolution. A strongly research-based approach is used to solve complex landscape problems and develop personal design approaches. In many areas of work in the UK the process of design is regarded as equally important as the product, and it is I think fair to say that in academia there is still more emphasis on process than in the professional world, where product is all-important.
英国的景观建筑学教育把重点放在工作室的工作上，以此作为景观课程的核心。一般来说，基本的原理就是学生在不同的学科领域学习，然后他们要表明是如何综合地运用这些知识在他们的设计方案的作品之中。教学在一整套模式的基础上逐渐展开，很多课程编排都虑及一些特殊的学科和在设计的类型和可能采取的模式的选择。景观建筑学教育的问题始终是有多少学科需要覆盖极其深度。在过去的10年里，基于计算机的技术，在设计方案的表现和最终成果上有了根本上的改变。然而，这也意味着学生除了传统的手绘图技巧外，必须用他们的时间担起额外的负担以掌握新的技巧。工作室的方案从抽象的到实际的各不相同，大多数学院现在为许多他们的工作室都使用真实的工程项目作为基础。在英国的院校，现在仍然有很多关于如何使学生掌握设计技巧的争论。可是最伟大的景观建筑师似乎不仅是综合能手，也是已知事物的解释者(Clark, 1969:6)。“老牌的”大学通常注重基于知识性的教学，同时“新兴的”大学，也就是先前的Polytechnics 工艺学校，则依然偏重对基于技巧的学习。这种情况满足了相当大范围的潜在的职业者的需要，包括那些可能成为出色的设计者但是不善于论战和分析的人，反之亦然。在Newcastle大学，学习的重点在于自由的观察力的发展，学习方法和设计能力的发展。现在一种充分的基于研究而来的方法被用来解决复杂的景观问题和发展个人的设计风格。在英国的工作的很多领域，设计的过程被认为与成果同等重要。我认为公平地说，在学术界比之职业领域更多地强调过程，在后者成果是首要的。
There has been for many years a difficult balance between an academic training and a professional one in the landscape and allied professions such as architecture and planning. In landscape there has been an emphasis in professional practice on function over aesthetics, with some outstanding exceptions – but this balance may change as a result of the influence of the present President, Professor Kathryn Moore. There is also a demand to teach architects and landscape architects together, but although this can provide benefits, there are still tensions evident which result from the fact that landscape architecture is ‘much more concerned with process, growth, change and time as opposed to finite form line and unchanging spaces, which are so much the concern of architecture’ (Holden, 2003:9). An increasingly close liaison between professionals and academic institutions can be seen in many studio projects and other subject areas which are now delivered by professionals co-opted to the programmes.
很多年以来在学术的培养和职业的训练之间始终是一个艰难的平衡，包括其他相关的专业如建筑学和规划。在景观界，除了一些杰出的案例以外，实际工作中重视功能甚于美学——但是由于现任主席Kathryn Moore 教授的影响，这种情况正在改变。另外，也有一种需要把建筑师和景观建筑师联合起来授课，尽管这样做有很多益处，但是仍然有明显的不协调之处，这些矛盾源于一些事实，即景观建筑师“更多的关注于过程，发展，变化和时机而不是有限形态的线条和不变的空间，然而这些正是建筑师的焦点” (Holden, 2003:9)。在职业者和学术组织之间越来越紧密的联系在很多项目工作室和其他学科领域都可以看到，后者现在得到在课程学习中新加入的专业人员的很大帮助。
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Crystal Gazing: British Landscape Architecture into the 21st Century
展望：21世纪的英国景观建筑学
It would seem that the present features of British landscape architectural practice are likely to continue with the demand for consideration of greater sustainability influencing the long-term vision and the development of awareness, expertise and a ‘sociological imagination’ (Julings, 1999:7) amongst design professionals. There is a new energy in the Landscape Institute, which has undergone considerable change since the achievement of the Royal Charter in 1997 finally indicating recognition by the establishment of the importance of this body and its members.
英国景观建筑学实践当前的特征似乎很可能要延续对更可持续发展考虑的需求，这一理念正影响着景观界的远景，同时也要继续发展景观意识，专家意见和在设计者中间的“社会想象力”(Julings, 1999:7)。自从1997年完成“皇室宪章”以来——这个宪章最终以其和其成员价值的确立为标志得到了认可，在景观学会中有一种新生的力量经历着巨大的变化。
There is a tendency for the British to look backwards to various ‘golden ages’ in landscape – as seen by the influence of the Heritage Lottery funding on the restoration of urban parks. This is often at the expense of embracing contemporary needs and innovative design thinking. However there is also a new awareness of the creative benefits of cross-disciplinary collaboration with artists and other designers. There is also a growing appreciation of the value of the whole of our landscape heritage – including industrial and social heritage - rather than the desire to simply ‘cover up’ what once were regarded as unseemly scars of social and industrial processes on the British landscape. A growing interest in cultural and aesthetic values of ordinary people in relation to landscape may temper some of the corporate excesses which were evident in the landscape design of the 1980s and 1990s. However, there is also considerable pressure from economic and political quarters. Britain is a small country with a large population and complex political and economic issues; the demand for land means that pressures are high in relation to landscape schemes. The profession in Britain is presently crying out for young landscape architects – there is much work to do and too few professionals to do it.
在英国景观界总是有一种回顾以往各种“黄金时代”的倾向——这可以从“传统彩票”基金在城市公园复兴项目上的影响力上看到。这经常以满足当代的需求和创新设计思想为代价。但是无论如何也有了一个新的认识，那就是在艺术家和其他设计者之间的跨学科的合作具有创造性的裨益。同时，对我们的景观整体的价值有了一个越来越正确的评价——包括工业的和社会的遗产——而不是急迫地想要简单地“掩盖”在不列颠的景观上我们曾经认为是在社会和工业化过程中留下的不体面的伤疤。普通人在景观方面对文化和美学价值日益增长的兴趣或许也调和了专业团体中一些过度的倾向，这种过度的现象在十九世纪八十年代和九十年代的景观设计中尤为明显。然而仍然有来自经济和政治方面的巨大压力。不列颠是一个有着很多人口和复杂的政治和经济事务的小国；对陆地的需要意味着在涉及景观的规划时压力是很大的。目前景观职业在英国十分期待年轻景观建筑师的出现——很多工作有待于完成而几乎没有专业人员来做这些事。
There is a growing recognition for the need to base landscape decisions on good research and theory as well as good practice and there are increasing calls for the Landscape Institute to provide stronger ethical guidance on the difficult problems facing practitioners. We in British landscape architecture perhaps need to take Jellicoe’s advice and build upon the strengths and traditions of the British culture and character. We should not reproduce internationalist styles, design and thinking born from globalisation which provides little or no reference to the cultural needs, the history or character of the British landscape. Certainly there are a number of academics now in the UK providing useful critique on landscape issues. Their writings are likely to be as influential on the profession as those of the remarkable landscape architects of the mid part of the 20th century. Over the years the profession in Britain has had ‘long fingers’ stretching to influence many parts of the world through professional practice and educational collaboration and this is likely to continue.
越来越成为共识的是，需要把景观设计建立在良好的研究和理论，还有良好的实践的基础之上，越来越多的呼声希望景观学会在从业者面临的难题上能提供强有力的具民族特色的指导。我们英国的景观建筑学也许需要采纳Jellicoe’s 的建议，强化英国的文化和特征的实力和传统。我们不应该复制在全球化条件下产生的国际主义的风格，设计和思想，它几乎不能或许丝毫不能提供对文化需求的参考，对英国景观的历史和特征的参考。当然目前在英国有很多学术组织对景观问题提出有益的批评。他们的文章很有可能像那些在二十世纪中期杰出的景观建筑师一样对这个专业产生影响。很多年以来，通过职业实践和合作教育，英国的景观职业有了“很长的触角”，向外延伸影响了世界的很多地方，而且，这种状况将继续下去。
Robert Holden, a British academic and practitioner, writes that landscape architecture in Britain is ‘an economically marginal area with comparatively small budgets’ (Holden, 2003:6). Holden also criticises those who see the discipline of landscape ‘as a profession first – in a narrow, exclusive and limiting sense – rather than as a uniquely liberating and all-embracing activity; part art form, part scientific, part totally practical and part political’ (ibid). Thompson (1999) agrees that landscape architecture can ‘exert a powerful attraction for those who discover it, for it offers a way to combine scientific knowledge with artistic endeavour, in an enterprise which, for the most part, is clearly on the side of the angels’ (p. xi). There is thus recognition that landscape practitioners in Britain are striving in their work to achieve results through a leap of the imagination based on the sound science of landscape. There is no absolute ‘truth’ to be found in this process but a need for vision and perhaps we should refer to the example of William Kent (1685-1748) the English garden designer who, according to the writer Horace Walpole, ‘leaped the fence, and saw that all nature was a garden’ (Thacker, 1979:184).
英国学者和从业者Robert Holden写道：不列颠的景观建筑学是“经济学上的边缘地区，相对来说只有很少的一部分预算” (Holden, 2003:6)。Holden也批判那些人，他们视景观学科“首先是一种职业——一种狭窄的，排外的和有限的理解—— 而不是作为一种独一无二的解放的和完全开放的活动：部分是形态艺术，部分是科学，部分是完全实践性的，部分甚至是政治的” (ibid)。Thompson (1999)赞许说景观建筑学能够“对那些在这个事业中发现它的人发挥出强大的吸引力，因为它提供了一种结合科学知识和艺术魅力的方式，而对于这个事业的绝大部分来说无疑是站在天使的这一边” (p. xi)。人们有这样的认识，即英国的景观从业者在他们的工作中竭尽全力，希望在景观合理的科学的基础上通过想象的飞跃获得成果。在这个过程中找不到绝对的“真理”，但是我们需要期待未来，也许我们应该仿效William Kent (1685-1748)的例子，按照作家Horace Walpole的说法，这位英国园艺设计家“越出了围篱，从而发现整个自然就是一个花园” (Thacker, 1979:184)。
Acknowledgements:
Thanks to Mike Downing for free use of his information, for editorial suggestions and advice on facts relating to this chapter.
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Maggie Roe, BA (Hons) DipLD MDesS MLI is a Senior Lecturer with the Landscape Research Group in the School of Architecture, Planning & Landscape at the University of Newcastle upon Tyne, UK. She studied at Leeds Metropolitan University (UK) and the Graduate School of Design, Harvard University (USA). She worked in practice in the north-east of England prior to joining Newcastle University in 1993. She has published academic papers and books including Landscape & Sustainability (2000), which she edited with John Benson. Her research interests are based on large scale landscape planning and sustainability issues, particularly in relation to people’s perception of and relationship with the landscape. She won the Landscape Institute (UK) Award (Research Category) in November 2001 for Research on Landscape and Community and is a member of the Landscape Institute Research Committee.
